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History of technology - Caustic Soda - Petro Chemicals Manufacturer by hi joiney
Measuring technological progress Many sociologists and anthropologists have created social theories dealing with social and cultural evolution Some like Lewis H Morgan Leslie White and Gerhard Lenski declare technological progress to be the primary factor driving the development of human civilization Morgan s concept of three major stages of social evolution savagery barbarism and civilization can be divided by technological milestones like fire the bow and pottery in the savage era domestication of animals agriculture and metalworking in the barbarian era and the alphabet and writing in the civilization era Instead of specific inventions White decided that the measure by which to judge the evolution of culture was energy For White the primary function of culture is to harness and control energy White differentiates between five stages of human development In the first people use energy of their own muscles In the second they use energy of domesticated animals In the third they use the energy of plants agricultural revolution In the fourth they learn to use the energy of natural resources coal oil gas In the fifth they harness nuclear energy White introduced a formula P E T where E is a measure of energy consumed and T is the measure of efficiency of technical factors utilizing the energy In his own words culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed per capita per year is increased or as the efficiency of the instrumental means of putting the energy to work is increased Russian astronomer Nikolai Kardashev extrapolated his theory creating the Kardashev scale which categorizes the energy use of advanced civilizations Lenski takes a more modern approach and focuses on information The more information and knowledge especially allowing the shaping of natural environment a given society has the more advanced it is He identifies four stages of human development based on advances in the history of communication In the first stage information is passed by genes In the second when humans gain sentience they can learn and pass information through by experience In the third the humans start using signs and develop logic In the fourth they can create symbols develop language and writing Advancements in the technology of communication translates into advancements in the economic system and political system distribution of wealth social inequality and other spheres of social life He also differentiates societies based on their level of technology communication and economy hunters and gatherers simple agricultural advanced agricultural industrial special such as fishing societies Finally from the late 1970s sociologists and anthropologists like Alvin Toffler author of Future Shock Daniel Bell and John Naisbitt have approached the theories of post industrial societies arguing that the current era of industrial society is coming to an end and services and information are becoming more important than industry and goods Some of the more extreme visions of the post industrial society especially in fiction are strikingly similar to the visions of near and post Singularity societies By period and geography This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding reliable references Unsourced material may be challenged and removed May 2008 Early technology Agriculture preceded writing in the history of technology Olduvai stone technology Olduwan 2 5 million years ago scrapers to butcher dead animals Acheulean stone technology 1 6 million years ago hand axe Fire creation and manipulation used since the Paleolithic possibly by Homo erectus as early as 1 5 Million years ago Homo sapiens sapiens modern human anatomy arises around 200 000 years ago Clothing possibly 100 000 years ago Stone tools used by Homo floresiensis possibly 100 000 years ago Ceramics ca 25 000 BC Domestication of Animals ca 15 000 BC Bow sling ca 9th millennium BC Microliths ca 9th millennium BC Copper ca 8000 BC Agriculture and Plough ca 8000 BC Wheel ca 4000 BC Gnomon ca 4000 BC Writing systems ca 3500 BC Bronze ca 3300 BC Salt Chariot ca 2000 BC Iron ca 1500 BC Sundial ca 800 BC Glass ca 500 BC Catapult ca 400 BC Horseshoe ca 300 BC Stirrup first few centuries AD Stone Age A variety of stone tools During the Stone Age all humans had a lifestyle which involved limited use of tools and few if any permanent settlements The first major technologies then were tied to survival hunting and food preparation in this environment Fire stone tools and weapons and clothing were technological developments of major importance during this period Stone Age cultures developed music and engaged in organized warfare A subset of Stone Age humans developed ocean worthy outrigger ship technology leading to an eastward migration across the Malay archipelago across the Indian ocean to Madagascar and also across the Pacific Ocean which required knowledge of the ocean currents weather patterns sailing celestial navigation and star maps The early Stone Age is described as Epipaleolithic or Mesolithic The former is generally used to describe the early Stone Age in areas with limited glacial impact The later Stone Age during which the rudiments of agricultural technology were developed is called the Neolithic period During this period polished stone tools were made from a variety of hard rocks such as flint jade jadeite and greenstone largely by working exposures as quarries but later the valuable rocks were pursued by tunnelling underground the first steps in mining technology The polished axes were used for forest clearance and the establishment of crop farming and were so effective as to remain in use when bronze and iron appeared Although Paleolithic cultures left no written records the shift from nomadic life to settlement and agriculture can be inferred from a range of archaeological evidence Such evidence includes ancient tools cave paintings and other prehistoric art such as the Venus of Willendorf Human remains also provide direct evidence both through the examination of bones and the study of mummies Though concrete evidence is limited scientists and historians have been able to form significant inferences about the lifestyle and culture of various prehistoric peoples and the role technology played in their lives Copper and Bronze Age A late Bronze Age sword or dagger blade The Stone Age developed into the Bronze Age after the Neolithic Revolution The Neolithic Revolution involved radical changes in agricultural technology which included development of agriculture animal domestication and the adoption of permanent settlements These combined factors made possible the development of metal smelting with copper and later bronze an alloy of tin and copper being the materials of choice although polished stone tools continued to be used for a considerable time owing to their abundance compared with the less common metals especially tin This technological trend apparently began in the Fertile Crescent and spread outward over time It should be noted that these developments were not and still are not universal The Three age system does not accurately describe the technology history of groups outside of Eurasia and does not apply at all in the case of some isolated populations such as the Spinifex People the Sentinelese and various Amazonian tribes which still make use of Stone Age technology and have not developed agricultural or metal technology Iron Age An axehead made of iron dating from Swedish Iron Age The Iron Age involved the adoption of iron smelting technology It generally replaced bronze and made it possible to produce tools which were stronger and cheaper to make than bronze equivalents In many Eurasian cultures the Iron Age was the last major step before the development of written language though again this was not universally the case It was not possible to mass manufacture steel because high furnace temperatures were needed but steel could be produced by forging bloomery iron to reduce the carbon content in a controllable way Iron ores were much more widespread than either copper or tin In Europe large hill forts were built either as a refuge in time of war or sometimes as permanent settlements In some cases existing forts from the Bronze Age were expanded and enlarged The pace of land clearance using the more effective iron axes increased providing more farmland to support the growing population By 1000 BC 500 BC the Germanic tribes had a Bronze Age civilization while the Celts were in the Iron Age by the time of the Hallstatt culture Their cultures collided with the military and agricultural practices of the Romans leading those Europeans who were conquered to adopt Roman technological advances Ancient civilizations Main article Ancient technology It was the growth of the ancient civilizations which produced the greatest advances in technology and engineering advances which stimulated other societies to adopt new ways of living and governance The Egyptians invented and used many simple machines such as the ramp to aid construction processes The Indus Valley Civilization situated in a resource rich area is notable for its early application of city planning and sanitation technologies Ancient India was also at the forefront of seafaring technology panel found at Mohenjodaro depicts a sailing craft Indian construction and architecture called Vaastu Shastra suggests a thorough understanding of materials engineering hydrology and sanitation The Chinese made many first known discoveries and developments Major technological contributions from China include early seismological detectors matches paper cast iron the iron plough the multi tube seed drill the suspension bridge the parachute natural gas as fuel the magnetic compass the raised relief map the propeller the crossbow the South Pointing Chariot and gun powder An illustration of the aeolipile the earliest steam powered device Greek and Hellenistic engineers invented many technologies and improved upon pre existing technologies Particularly the Hellenistic period saw a sharp rise in technological inventiveness fostered by a climate of openness to new idea royal patronage the blossom of a mechanistic philosophy and the establishment of the Library of Alexandria and its close association with the adjacent museion In contrast to the typically anonymous inventor of earlier ages ingenuine minds such as Archimedes Philo of Byzantium Heron and Ctesibius now remained known by name to posterity Ancient Greek innovations were particularly pronounced in mechanical technology including the ground breaking invention of the watermill which constituted the first human devised motive force not to rely on muscle labour besides the sail Apart from their pioneer use of waterpower Greek inventors were also the first to experiment with wind power see Heron s windwheel and even created the earliest steam engine the aeolipile opening up entirely new possibilities in harnessing natural forces whose full potential came only to be exploited in the industrial revolution Of particular importance for the operation of mechanical devices became the newly devised right angled gear and the screw The compartmented water wheel here its overshot version was invented in Hellenistic times Ancient agriculture as in any period prior to the modern age the primary mode of production and subsistence and its irrigation methods were considerably advanced by the invention and widespread application of a number of previously unknown water lifting devices such as the vertical water wheel the compartmented wheel the water turbine Archimedes screw the suction pump the bucket chain and pot garland the force pump the suction pump the double action piston pump and quite possibly the chain pump In music water organ invented by Ctesibius and subsequently improved constituted the earliest instance of a keyboard instrument In time keeping the introduction of the inflow clepsydra and its mechanization by the dial and pointer the application of a feedback system and the escapement mechanism far superseded the earlier outflow clepsydra The famous Antikythera mechanism a kind of analogous computer working with a differential gear and the astrolabe show great refinement in the astronomical science Greek engineers were also the first to devise automaton such as vending machines suspended ink pots automatic washstands and doors primarily as toys which however featured many new useful mechanisms such as the cam and gimbals In other fields ancient Greek inventions include the catapult and the gastraphetes crossbow in warfare hollow bronze casting in metallurgy the dioptra for surveying in infrastructure the lighthouse central heating the tunnel excavated from both ends by scientific calculations the ship trackway the dry dock and plumbing In horizontal vertical and transport great progress resulted from the invention of the crane the winch the wheelbarrow and the odometer Further newly created techniques and items were spiral staircases the chain drive sliding calipers and showers Pont du Gard in France a Roman aqueduct The Romans developed an intensive and sophisticated agriculture expanded upon existing iron working technology created laws providing for individual ownership advanced stone masonry technology advanced road building exceeded only in the 19th century military engineering civil engineering spinning and weaving and several different machines like the Gallic reaper that helped to increase productivity in many sectors of the Roman economy Roman engineers were the first to build monumental arches amphitheatres aqueducts public baths true arch bridges harbours reservoirs and dams vaults and domes on a very large scale across their Empire Notable Roman inventions include the book Codex glass blowing and concrete Because Rome was located on a volcanic peninsula with sand which contained suitable crystalline grains the concrete which the Romans formulated was e
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